Tamanna Hazarika
“Even though she had been removed from power twice by her own husbands, she showed great determination and strength by returning each time and ruling again.”
The Maldives, a chain of islands in the Indian Ocean, has a long and complex history of female rulers. Although most rulers were men, several women rose to power and ruled as sultanas in Maldives. Their stories span from the 1300s to the 1700s and include bold acts of political skill and resilience. Rehendhi Khadeejah stands out as the best-known of these rulers. She first took the throne in 1347 and, despite being removed twice by powerful husbands, managed to return and rule in three separate periods until about 1379.
Later sultanas followed different paths to power. Raadhafathi and her daughter Fatima both ruled in the late 1300s. In the early 1600s, Kuda Kala Kamanafaanu governed as a regent while the official king was absent. In the 1700s, Amina I briefly ruled after her family reclaimed the capital from foreign occupation; she later abdicated, tried to regain power, and was exiled. Her namesake, Amina Rani Kilegefaanu (Amina II), became a child ruler and then sultana, but was replaced by an uncle in a continuing pattern of dynastic struggle.
Rehendhi Khadeejah:
Al-Sultana Khadeejah Sri Raadha Abaarana Mahaa Rehendhi, better known as Rehendhi Khadeejah, was the reigning Sultana of the Maldives from 1347 to 1379 (died 1379 or 1380). She was one of the few women to rule in recorded Maldivian history. In the annals of Maldivian history, few figures shine as brightly Rehendhi Khadeejah.
Khadijah was the oldest daughter of Sultan Omar I from the Maldives. She became the first female ruler (sultana) in her family line. Famous Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta noted that her grandfather, a Bengali ruler named Sultan Salahuddin Salih al-Bangali, started the dynasty.
She was half-sister to Raadhafathi, who ruled after Khadijah’s last time in power. In 1347, Khadijah took the throne by removing her brother, Sultan Ahmed Shihabuddin. Her first rule lasted until 1362.
Ibn Battuta, when he arrived at Maldives, was amazed and noted: “One of the wonders of these islands is that its ruler (sultana) is a woman named Khadija ….
Sovereignty was exercised first by her grandfather, and then by her father. When the latter died her brother Shihab-ud-din became king. He was still young and the vezir ‘Abdallah son of Muhammad al-Hazrami married the mother of Shihab-uddin and overpowered him. And it was he who married also this Sultana Khadija after the death of her husband, the vezir Jamal-uddin.”
He described the fights that killed her brother and put her in charge: “The only survivors from the ruling house were his three sisters … The inhabitants of the Maldive islands preferred for sovereign Khadija and she was the wife of their orator (khatib) Jamal-ud-din who became vezir. He took over the reins of power… but orders were issued in the name of Khadija only. The orders were written on palm leaves with a bent piece of iron similar to a knife, while paper was not used except for writing the Qur’an and books of learning.”
Ibn Battuta writes that the khatib prayed for her on Fridays: ” O my God!’ says he, ‘help Thy female slave whom Thou in Thy wisdom hast chosen from all creatures and made an instrument of Thy grace for all Muslims.” He noticed that women in the Maldives, including the Queen, Khadija, didn’t cover their upper bodies (from the waist up), unlike other Muslim women. He did try to get them to cover up, but it didn’t work, possibly due to their ignorance.
Around 1362 or 1363, Khadijah lost her throne when her husband and chief advisor (vizier), Muhammad el-Jameel, removed her from power. But she did not give up. In the same year, she gathered support and fought back to take control again. She defeated her first husband and had him killed, becoming the ruler once more. After regaining power, Khadijah ruled for about ten years, from 1363 to 1373. During this time, she continued to lead and manage the kingdom. However, her rule did not last forever. In 1373, her second husband and minister, Abdullah I, also turned against her and removed her from the throne again.
Three years after she was removed from power, Khadijah made another comeback. In 1376, she planned and carried out an attack against her second husband, Abdullah I. She had him killed and took back the throne once again.
This marked the beginning of her third and final reign, which lasted from 1376 to 1379. Even though she had been removed from power twice by her own husbands, she showed great determination and strength by returning each time and ruling again.
Khadija efficiently ran the Maldives government during her three reigns in the 1300s. She relied mainly on her powerful viziers (ministers) who were often her husbands, like Jamal-ud-din and Abdullah. They handled daily power, but all official orders went out in her name only—written on palm leaves with a bent iron tool. Records weren’t on paper, so local palm-leaf was used during her reign.
She kept an army of 1,000 foreign-born soldiers that showed up daily at her audience hall to salute her. People supported her directly—the islanders picked her as ruler after family killings, and the khatib (preacher) praised her in Friday prayers as God’s chosen leader for Muslims.
When Ibn Battuta visited the Maldives around 1343–1344, he was appointed as a Qadi (Islamic judge) by the ruling court under Rehendhi Khadijah in the year 1347. The Maldives had recently embraced Islam and needed learned judges to enforce Islamic law.
Ibn Battuta tried to introduce several religious and social reforms during his time as qadi in the Maldives, but many of them were unpopular and only partly successful. He introduced stricter punishments and tried to ensure that court decisions followed Islamic rules instead of local customs. However, the people were used to their own traditions, so they did not always accept his decisions.
He also tried to regulate marriage and divorce. In the Maldives, divorce was very common and easy. Ibn Battuta attempted to make these practices stricter according to Islamic law, but local customs continued. Maldivian women traditionally went bare-breasted, which was one of Ibn Battuta’s biggest concerns.
He wanted women to cover themselves more, as required by his understanding of Islamic law. But in the Maldives, women traditionally dressed differently, and many refused to change. Because of this, his efforts were mostly unsuccessful. Ibn Battuta remained Qadi of Maldives until 1349, but the reign of Khadijah continued until her death in 1379.
In total, Khadijah ruled the country of Maldives for nearly 30 years, which was a long time, especially considering all the challenges she faced. After her final reign ended in 1379, she was succeeded by Raadhafathi, who became the next ruler.
Khadija was a trailblazing queen in the Maldives during the 1300s. She was one of the world’s earliest female leaders. In 1347, she grabbed the throne by overthrowing her brother—making her the first sultana of the Theemuge Dynasty. This was something uncommon in a time when men always led, especially in Muslim lands.
Her story shows women’s power in history. Even after being pushed out twice (by husbands who were her ministers), she fought back and ruled again. People chose her over others, proving she had real support. Ibn Battuta was shocked by her leadership as a woman leading an island nation. He praised her and noted that she was respected by her subjects and that the kingdom was stable under her leadership. He recognized her as a capable and politically effective ruler, maintaining order in the islands.
Dhaain of the Maldives:
Al-Sultana Raadhafathi Sri Suvama Abaarana Mahaa Rehendhi, also known as Myriam or Raadhafathi, ruled as Sultana of the Maldives from 1379 to 1383. She was the third daughter of Sultan Jalaaduddin Umar Vir and came to power after the death of her sister, the long-reigning Sultana Rehendhi Khadijah. Her husband, Mohamed of Maakurath, served as her vizier. In 1383, she died and was succeeded by her daughter.
Sultana Dhaain Kambaidhi Kilege Sri Nithaa Abaarana Mahaa Rehendhi, also known as Fatima, was the sultana regnant of the Maldives from 1383 to 1388. She was the daughter of Sultana Raadhafathi and Sultan Mohamed I of the Maldives, and she succeeded Raadhafathi to the throne.
Some historical sources claim that she was later forced to abdicate in favour of her husband, Sultan Abdullah II of the Maldives, who then became sultan. However, other accounts state that she continued to rule in her own right until her death in 1388.
Kuda Kala Kamanafaanu:
Kuda Kala Kamanafaanu, also known as Kalhu Kamana or Queen Tukkamana, was the ruler of the Maldives from 1609 to 1613. Although she was officially only a regent, she held real power and ruled the country like a queen.
The official king, Ibrahim Kalaafaan, was not living in the Maldives—he stayed in Goa. Because of his absence, Kuda Kala Kamanafaanu took control of the government and managed the affairs of the kingdom. She acted as the true Sultana (ruler), even though she did not hold the title legally. She played a key role in maintaining order and governance during this period.
After the death of Ibrahim Kalaafaan in 1609, his cousin Queen Tukkamana became the ruler. She governed the Maldives for about four years until she passed away. However, her rule was not stable because the country was facing a civil war. This internal conflict made it difficult for her to fully control the kingdom. Later, Queen Tukkamana died while she was on a pilgrimage to Mahibadu Island in the Ari Atoll.
A historical grant from 1661 mentions her name, showing that she was still remembered as a ruler even many years after her death.
Amina Kabafaanu:
Amina I of the Maldives, also known as Amina Kabafaanu or Aminath Kabafan, was born on 2 February 1724. She became the ruler (sultana) of the Maldives and ruled the country for a short period from 1753 to 1754 and again in 1773. Even though her reign did not last long, she is remembered as one of the few women who held power in the history of the Maldives.
Amina was the eldest daughter of Sultan Ibrahim Iskandar II and his wife Aisha Manikfan. In September 1743, Amina married Ali Shah Bandar Vela’ana’a Manikufa’anu, who was the son of a respected nobleman, Addu Ali Thakurufan.
After her father died in 1750, the throne passed to her uncle, Sultan Muhammad Imaduddin III. But in 1752, he was captured by the Ali Raja of Cannanore and taken prisoner to an island called Kavaratti in the Laccadives. During this time, the capital city Malé was occupied by forces from Cannanore. However, after about 17 weeks, a leader named Muleegey Dom Hassan Maniku (also called Hassan Manikfan) managed to free Malé from foreign control.
After Malé was freed, Amina was made the ruler of the Maldives. People accepted her as queen without any opposition. She ruled the country together with Hassan Manikfan, who helped her manage the kingdom. However, her rule did not last long. In 1754, she gave up the throne in favour of her young cousin, Amina Rani Kilegefa’anu, who was only nine years old.
Hassan Manikfan became regent for the child ruler. Amina’s decision to step down was likely due to political conflicts, especially opposition against Hassan Manikfan, who had a lot of power. She also had financial problems, including debts to a French trader named Monsieur Le Termellier.
After leaving the throne, Amina moved to Hithadoo Island in the Addu Atoll with her husband. Amina was strong and determined—she tried to gather support to reclaim power. When she heard that there were plans to arrest her, she and her husband escaped by sea with three armed ships and headed toward Minicoy.
But when the rulers in Malé found out, they sent a force led by Umar Manik (the brother of Hassan Manikfan) to capture her. A battle took place near the Kelaa island channel, and Amina was defeated. She and her husband were captured and brought back to Malé. In September 1754, they were exiled again, this time to Fenfushi Island.
In 1773, Amina’s brother, Sultan Muhammed Ghiya’as ud-din, went on the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. Before leaving, he appointed Amina and her husband to rule the country as regents in his absence.
However, a sudden takeover of power took place. Supporters of Amina’s husband tried to remove her brother from power and declare her husband as the new ruler. This act was seen as rebellion by those loyal to the sultan. Soon after, another counter-coup happened, and the rebels were defeated. A new ruler, Muhammad Shamsuddeen II, was placed on the throne.
Amina and her husband were arrested and sent into exile once again, this time to Huliyandhoo Island. They spent the rest of their lives there and eventually died in exile. Although not much is known about her later life or the exact date of her death (it is known that she died sometime after 1773), Amina I remains an important historical figure as a female ruler and leader in the Maldives. Amina’s life was full of struggles, but she remains a strong and determined figure, remembered as one of the few women who ruled and fought for power in Maldivian history.
Amina Rani Kilegefaanu:
Amina Rani Kilegefaanu, also known as Aminath Rani Kilegefan, was born around 1745. She was a royal princess of the Maldives and the daughter of Muhammad Imaduddin III. She was the ruler of the Maldives from 1754 to 1759.
Amina was the daughter of Sultan Muhammad Imaduddin III. In 1752, Ali Raja from Cannanore captured her father and jailed him on Kavaratti Island in the Laccadives (now Lakshadweep).
At the same time, Malabar people from southern India took over the capital, Malé. They held the city for 17 weeks. Then, Hassan Manikfan fought them off and freed Malé. Amina’s grown-up cousin from both her parents’ sides—Amina I—became regent (temporary ruler). Hassan Manikfan acted as her co-regent.
As we discussed in the previous chapter, in 1754, Amina I chose to step down. At just nine years old, Amina Rani Kilegefaanu (later called Amina II) was named the official princess regent in place of her still-captive father. In 1757, after her father was believed to have died, Amina Rani officially became the Sultana (queen) of the Maldives and ruled in her own name.
Her reign continued until 1759. After 1759, she was removed from the throne in favour of her paternal uncle, Hasan ‘Izz ud-din. Historical records note that Amina continued to receive great respect and honor under his rule. She died sometime after 1759.
The female Muslim rulers of the Maldives left a mixed but important legacy. From Rehendhi Khadeejah’s long and eventful reigns in the 14th century to the shorter, troubled rules of Kuda Kala Kamanafaanu and the two Aminas in the 17th–18th centuries, these women demonstrated political skill, resilience, and influence.
Travellers like Ibn Battuta recorded their authority, while local sources note how viziers, husbands, and islander support shaped their power. Although many of their reigns ended in force or exile, the fact that these women became rulers at all shows that Maldivian politics allowed room for female sovereignty under certain conditions. Their stories broaden our view of medieval and early modern Muslim societies by showing that leadership could be flexible and that women sometimes held real power.
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Mernissi, Fatima. (1993). The Forgotten Queens of Islam. University of Minnesota Press Minneapolis.
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Thaajuddin. (1993). Dhivehi thaareekhu. Dhivehi Bahaai Thaareekhah Khidhumaiy Kuraa Qaumee Majlis,.
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